6813
INFORMATIONAL
The Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA) Asokan Attack Analysis
Authors: J. Salowey, S. Hanna
Date: December 2012
Area: sec
Working Group: nea
Stream: IETF
Abstract
The Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA) protocols are subject to a subtle forwarding attack that has become known as the NEA Asokan Attack. This document describes the attack and countermeasures that may be mounted. This document is not an Internet Standards Track specification; it is published for informational purposes.
RFC 6813
INFORMATIONAL
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) J. Salowey
Request for Comments: 6813 Cisco Systems
Category: Informational S. Hanna
ISSN: 2070-1721 Juniper Networks
December 2012
<span class="h1">The Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA) Asokan Attack Analysis</span>
Abstract
The Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA) protocols are subject to a
subtle forwarding attack that has become known as the NEA Asokan
Attack. This document describes the attack and countermeasures that
may be mounted.
Status of This Memo
This document is not an Internet Standards Track specification; it is
published for informational purposes.
This document is a product of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). It represents the consensus of the IETF community. It has
received public review and has been approved for publication by the
Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG). Not all documents
approved by the IESG are a candidate for any level of Internet
Standard; see <a href="./rfc5741#section-2">Section 2 of RFC 5741</a>.
Information about the current status of this document, any errata,
and how to provide feedback on it may be obtained at
<a href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6813">http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6813</a>.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2012 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
This document is subject to <a href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/bcp/bcp78">BCP 78</a> and the IETF Trust's Legal
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Table of Contents
<a href="#section-1">1</a>. Introduction ....................................................<a href="#page-2">2</a>
<a href="#section-2">2</a>. NEA Asokan Attack Explained .....................................<a href="#page-2">2</a>
<a href="#section-3">3</a>. Lying Endpoints .................................................<a href="#page-4">4</a>
<a href="#section-4">4</a>. Countermeasures against the NEA Asokan Attack ...................<a href="#page-4">4</a>
<a href="#section-4.1">4.1</a>. Identity Binding ...........................................<a href="#page-4">4</a>
<a href="#section-4.2">4.2</a>. Cryptographic Binding ......................................<a href="#page-5">5</a>
<a href="#section-4.2.1">4.2.1</a>. Binding Options .....................................<a href="#page-5">5</a>
<a href="#section-5">5</a>. Conclusions .....................................................<a href="#page-6">6</a>
<a href="#section-6">6</a>. Security Considerations .........................................<a href="#page-6">6</a>
<a href="#section-7">7</a>. Informative References ..........................................<a href="#page-7">7</a>
<a href="#section-8">8</a>. Acknowledgments .................................................<a href="#page-7">7</a>
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-1" href="#section-1">1</a>. Introduction</span>
The Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA) [<a href="#ref-2" title=""Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA): Overview and Requirements"">2</a>] protocols are subject to a
subtle forwarding attack that has become known as the NEA Asokan
Attack. This document describes the attack and countermeasures that
may be mounted. The Posture Transport (PT) protocols developed by
the NEA working group, PT-TLS [<a href="#ref-5" title=""PT-TLS: A TCP- based Posture Transport (PT) Protocol"">5</a>] and PT-EAP [<a href="#ref-6" title=""PT-EAP: Posture Transport (PT) Protocol For EAP Tunnel Methods"">6</a>], include mechanisms
that can provide cryptographic-binding and identity-binding
countermeasures.
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-2" href="#section-2">2</a>. NEA Asokan Attack Explained</span>
The NEA Asokan Attack is a variation on an attack described in a 2002
paper written by Asokan, Niemi, and Nyberg [<a href="#ref-1" title=""Man-in-the-Middle Attacks in Tunneled Authentication Protocols"">1</a>]. Figure 1 depicts one
version of the original Asokan attack. This attack involves tricking
an authorized user into authenticating to a decoy Authentication,
Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) server, which forwards the
authentication protocol from one tunnel to another, tricking the real
AAA server into believing these messages originated from the
attacker-controlled machine. As a result, the real AAA server grants
access to the attacker-controlled machine.
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+-------------+ ========== +----------+
| Attacker |-AuthProto--|AAA Server|
+-------------+ ========== +----------+
|
AuthProto
|
+--------------+ ========== +----------------+
|AuthorizedUser|-AuthProto--|Decoy AAA Server|
+--------------+ ========== +----------------+
Figure 1: One Example of Original Asokan Attack
As described in the NEA Overview [<a href="#ref-2" title=""Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA): Overview and Requirements"">2</a>], the NEA Reference Model is
composed of several nested protocols. The Posture Attribute (PA)
protocol is nested in the Posture Broker (PB) protocol, which is
nested in the PT protocol. When used together successfully, these
protocols allow an NEA Server to assess the security posture of an
endpoint. The NEA Server may use this information to decide whether
network access should be granted, or it may use this information for
other purposes.
Figure 2 illustrates an NEA Asokan Attack. The attacker wants to
trick GoodServer into believing that DirtyEndpoint has good security
posture. This might allow, for example, the attacker to bring an
infected machine onto a network and infect others. To accomplish
this goal, the attacker forwards PA messages from CleanEndpoint
through BadServer to DirtyEndpoint, which sends them on to
GoodServer. GoodServer is tricked into thinking that the PA messages
came from DirtyEndpoint and therefore considers DirtyEndpoint to be
clean.
+-------------+ ========== +----------+
|DirtyEndpoint|-----PA-----|GoodServer|
+-------------+ ========== +----------+
|
PA
|
+-------------+ ========== +---------+
|CleanEndpoint|-----PA-----|BadServer|
+-------------+ ========== +---------+
Figure 2: NEA Asokan Attack
Countermeasures against an NEA Asokan Attack are described in <a href="#section-4">Section</a>
<a href="#section-4">4</a>.
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<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-3" href="#section-3">3</a>. Lying Endpoints</span>
Some may argue that there are other attacks against NEA systems that
are simpler than the Asokan attack, such as lying endpoint attacks.
That is true. It's easy for an endpoint to simply lie about its
posture. But, there are defenses against lying endpoint attacks,
such as using an External Measurement Agent (EMA).
An EMA is hardware, software, or firmware that is especially secure,
hard to compromise, and designed to accurately report on endpoint
configuration. The EMA observes and reports on critical aspects of
endpoint posture, such as which security-relevant firmware and
software have been loaded.
When an EMA is used for NEA, the PA messages that reliably and
securely establish endpoint posture are exchanged between the EMA
itself and a Posture Validator on the NEA Server. The Posture
Collector on the endpoint and any other intermediaries between the
EMA and the Posture Validator on the NEA Server are not trusted.
They just pass messages along as untrusted intermediaries.
To ensure that the EMA's messages are accurately conveyed to the
Posture Validator, even if the Posture Collector or other
intermediaries have been compromised, these PA messages must provide
integrity protection, replay protection, and source authentication
between the EMA and the Posture Validator. Confidentiality
protection is not needed, at least with respect to the software on
the endpoint, but integrity protection should include protection
against message deletion and session truncation. Organizations that
have developed EMAs have typically developed remote attestation
protocols that provide these properties (e.g., the Trusted Computing
Group's (TCG's) Platform Trust Service (PTS) Protocol Binding to IF-M
[<a href="#ref-7" title=""TCG Attestation PTS Protocol: Binding to TNC IF-M"">7</a>]). While the development of lying endpoint detection technologies
is out of scope for NEA, these technologies must be supported by the
NEA protocols. Therefore, the NEA protocols must support
countermeasures against the NEA Asokan Attack.
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-4" href="#section-4">4</a>. Countermeasures against the NEA Asokan Attack</span>
<span class="h3"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.1" href="#section-4.1">4.1</a>. Identity Binding</span>
One way to mitigate the Asokan attack is to bind the identities used
in tunnel establishment into a cryptographic exchange at the PA
layer. While this can go a long way to preventing the attack, it
does not bind the exchange to a specific TLS exchange, which is
desirable. In addition, there is no standard way to extract an
identity from a TLS session, which could make implementation
difficult.
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<span class="h3"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2" href="#section-4.2">4.2</a>. Cryptographic Binding</span>
Another way to thwart the NEA Asokan Attack is for the PA exchange to
be cryptographically bound to the PT exchange and to any keying
material or privileges granted as a result of these two exchanges.
This allows the NEA Server to ensure that the PA messages pertain to
the same endpoint as the party terminating the PT exchange and that
no other party gains any access or advantage from this exchange.
<span class="h4"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2.1" href="#section-4.2.1">4.2.1</a>. Binding Options</span>
This section discusses binding protocol solution options and provides
analysis. Since PT-TLS and PT-EAP involve TLS, this document focuses
on TLS-based solutions that can work with either transport.
<span class="h5"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2.1.1" href="#section-4.2.1.1">4.2.1.1</a>. Information from the TLS Tunnel</span>
The TLS handshake establishes a cryptographic state between the TLS
client and TLS server. There are several mechanisms that can be used
to export information derived from this state. The client and server
independently include this information in calculations to bind the
instance of the tunnel into the PA protocol.
Keying Material Export - <a href="./rfc5705">RFC 5705</a> [<a href="#ref-8" title=""Keying Material Exporters for Transport Layer Security (TLS)"">8</a>] defines Keying Material
Exporters for TLS that allow additional secret key material to be
extracted from the TLS master secret.
tls-unique Channel Binding Data - <a href="./rfc5929">RFC 5929</a> [<a href="#ref-9" title=""Channel Bindings for TLS"">9</a>] defines several
quantities that can be extracted from the TLS session to bind the TLS
session to other protocols. The tls-unique binding consists of data
extracted from the TLS handshake finished message.
<span class="h5"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2.1.2" href="#section-4.2.1.2">4.2.1.2</a>. TLS Cipher Suites</span>
In order to eliminate the possibility of a man-in-the-middle attack
and thwart the Asokan attack when using the keying material export
binding export mechanism, it is important that neither TLS endpoint
be in sole control of the TLS pre-master secret. Cipher suites based
on key transport, such as RSA cipher suites, do not meet this
requirement; instead, Diffie-Hellman Cipher Suites, such as RSA-DHE,
are required when this mechanism is employed.
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<span class="h5"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2.1.3" href="#section-4.2.1.3">4.2.1.3</a>. Using Additional Key Material from TLS</span>
In some cases, key material is extracted from the TLS tunnel and used
to derive ciphering keys used in another protocol. For example,
EAP-TLS [<a href="#ref-10" title=""The EAP-TLS Authentication Protocol"">10</a>] uses key material extracted from TLS in lower-layer
ciphering. In this case, the extracted keys must not be under the
control of a single party, so the considerations in the previous
section are important.
<span class="h5"><a class="selflink" id="section-4.2.1.4" href="#section-4.2.1.4">4.2.1.4</a>. EMA Assumptions</span>
The EMA needs to obtain the binding data from the TLS exchange and
prove knowledge of the binding data in an exchange that has integrity
protection, source authentication, and replay protection.
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-5" href="#section-5">5</a>. Conclusions</span>
The recommendations for addressing the NEA Asokan Attack are as
follows:
1. Protocols should make use of cryptographic binding; in addition,
binding identities of the tunnel endpoints in the EMA may be
useful.
2. In particular, L2 and L3 TLS-based PT transports (e.g., PT-TLS
and PT-EAP) should use the same cryptographic binding mechanism.
3. The preferred approach is to use the tls-unique channel binding
data from [<a href="#ref-9" title=""Channel Bindings for TLS"">9</a>]. The tls-unique value will be made available to
the EMA that will use it. This approach can utilize any TLS
cipher suite based on a strong cipher algorithm.
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-6" href="#section-6">6</a>. Security Considerations</span>
This document is primarily concerned with analyzing and proposing
countermeasures for the NEA Asokan Attack. That does not mean that
it covers all the possible attacks against the NEA protocols or
against the NEA Reference Model. For a broader security analysis,
see the Security Considerations section of the NEA Overview [<a href="#ref-2" title=""Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA): Overview and Requirements"">2</a>],
PA-TNC [<a href="#ref-3" title=""PA-TNC: A Posture Attribute (PA) Protocol Compatible with Trusted Network Connect (TNC)"">3</a>], PB-TNC [<a href="#ref-4" title=""PB-TNC: A Posture Broker (PB) Protocol Compatible with Trusted Network Connect (TNC)"">4</a>], PT-TLS [<a href="#ref-5" title=""PT-TLS: A TCP- based Posture Transport (PT) Protocol"">5</a>], and PT-EAP [<a href="#ref-6" title=""PT-EAP: Posture Transport (PT) Protocol For EAP Tunnel Methods"">6</a>].
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<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-7" href="#section-7">7</a>. Informative References</span>
[<a id="ref-1">1</a>] Asokan, N., Niemi, V., and K. Nyberg, "Man-in-the-Middle Attacks
in Tunneled Authentication Protocols", Nokia Research Center,
Finland, Nov. 11, 2002, <a href="http://eprint.iacr.org/2002/163.pdf">http://eprint.iacr.org/2002/163.pdf</a>.
[<a id="ref-2">2</a>] Sangster, P., Khosravi, H., Mani, M., Narayan, K., and J. Tardo,
"Network Endpoint Assessment (NEA): Overview and Requirements",
<a href="./rfc5209">RFC 5209</a>, June 2008.
[<a id="ref-3">3</a>] Sangster, P. and K. Narayan, "PA-TNC: A Posture Attribute (PA)
Protocol Compatible with Trusted Network Connect (TNC)", <a href="./rfc5792">RFC</a>
<a href="./rfc5792">5792</a>, March 2010.
[<a id="ref-4">4</a>] Sahita, R., Hanna, S., Hurst, R., and K. Narayan, "PB-TNC: A
Posture Broker (PB) Protocol Compatible with Trusted Network
Connect (TNC)", <a href="./rfc5793">RFC 5793</a>, March 2010.
[<a id="ref-5">5</a>] Sangster, P., N. Cam-Winget, and J. Salowey, "PT-TLS: A TCP-
based Posture Transport (PT) Protocol", Work in Progress,
October 2012.
[<a id="ref-6">6</a>] Cam-Winget, N. and P. Sangster, "PT-EAP: Posture Transport (PT)
Protocol For EAP Tunnel Methods", Work in Progress, July 2012.
[<a id="ref-7">7</a>] Trusted Computing Group, "TCG Attestation PTS Protocol: Binding
to TNC IF-M", Version 1.0, Revision 27, August 2011.
[<a id="ref-8">8</a>] Rescorla, E., "Keying Material Exporters for Transport Layer
Security (TLS)", <a href="./rfc5705">RFC 5705</a>, March 2010.
[<a id="ref-9">9</a>] Altman, J., Williams, N., and L. Zhu, "Channel Bindings for
TLS", <a href="./rfc5929">RFC 5929</a>, July 2010.
[<a id="ref-10">10</a>] Simon, D., Aboba, B., and R. Hurst, "The EAP-TLS Authentication
Protocol", <a href="./rfc5216">RFC 5216</a>, March 2008.
<span class="h2"><a class="selflink" id="section-8" href="#section-8">8</a>. Acknowledgments</span>
The members of the NEA Asokan Design Team were critical to the
development of this document: Nancy Cam-Winget, Steve Hanna, Joe
Salowey, and Paul Sangster.
The authors would also like to recognize N. Asokan, Valtteri Niemi,
and Kaisa Nyberg who published the original paper on this type of
attack and Pasi Eronen who extended this attack to NEA protocols.
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Authors' Addresses
Joseph Salowey
Cisco Systems, Inc.
2901 3rd. Ave
Seattle, WA 98121
USA
EMail: [email protected]
Steve Hanna
Juniper Networks, Inc.
79 Parsons Street
Brighton, MA 02135
USA
EMail: [email protected]
Salowey & Hanna Informational [Page 8]
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